The Postmodern Proletariat Essay Example for Free

The Postmodern Proletariat Essay ABSTRACT Although the landscape of the business world has changed dramatically, there is disagreement among scholars as to whether Marx’s theory of alienation still applies to the current workplace environment. Although the advent of unions and teamsters groups, employee stock options and ownership sharing plans, and job benefits seem to ameliorate working conditions thereby minimizing the existence of alienation, some scholars believe that other inventions from capitalism such as globalization and information technology communications offset the balance gained from these improvements in labor relations thereby further promulgating its effects. Using historical observation from the early years of capitalism in America, social identity theory, and literature on information technology and corporate cultural diversity, a disparity emerges regarding how the social alienation of minorities differs from that of non-minority members. A dialectical inquiry is made to determine how the history of capital labor in America is related to social alienation based on a worker’s racial or cultural heritage. INTRODUCTION Some scholars suggest that Marxian theory is antiquated and that due to advances in technology, the evolution of industry and the change in the way business is conducted, individuals in the workplace may experience less alienation than before. The evolution of organizational and employee developments such as the unions and teamsters groups, employee stock options and ownership sharing plans, and job benefits may offer explanations as to why symptoms of alienation have yet to birth a proletariat revolution as theorized by Marx. Additionally, socio-economic â€Å"safety nets† established by legislation to save capitalism such as the creation of the â€Å"living wage†, welfare, child labor laws, equal employment opportunity and affirmative action programs, and social security have also assisted in the maintenance of capitalism thereby minimizing the impact alienation has on individuals in the workplace. However, for most minorities and women these developments that have occurred throughout American history have done little to ameliorate alienation because until approximately the last 30 – 40 years few labor laws were designed with minorities in mind. As a matter of fact, even legislation designed to protect minorities and women is often challenging to enforce, allowing alienation to exist from factors including unequal employment opportunities, a lack of diversity in the workplace, and unequal pay between men and women or based on race. Research suggests that women and minorities on average still make as little as between 75% 80% of white men’s wages in paid labor. Marx has been criticized for overlooking this stratum of alienation based on race and gender that illuminates a different face of capitalism. Marx proposed four dimensions of alienation that can be classified as self, social, product, and means of production. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how alienation occurs in different ways overlooked in the literature by redefining the worker through the lens of social identity theory which may explain how alienation is a relative concept. Questions will be addressed such as which workers may experience relative alienation? What other forms of alienation exist and to whom may it apply? And how can the new proletariat be effectively managed in efforts to reduce anxiety as a result of social or cultural dissonance? Following a brief literature review of Marxian theory, social identity theory, and literature on information technology, I will examine how the expansion of capitalism has spawned a modern more diverse proletariat that still experiences alienation, but in varying degrees that differ from non-minority workers. This paper will theoretically demonstrate how time affects the social alienation of minorities in a manner different than non-minority members resulting in a dialectical inquiry of how the history of capital labor in America is related to social alienation. LITERATURE REVIEW The link between capitalism and labor Throughout the history of the world, it is labor power which has elevated any so called civilized society. According to Marx, before the emergence of capitalism, society was more communal and each person in society contributed his/her own labor where it was needed and in the way best suited for his or herself (Marx Engels, 1951). For example, there were blacksmiths, hunters, fisherman etc. and each bartered and traded with one another for their sustenance. Approximately 2,000 years before the dawn of capitalism â€Å"false needs† (those needs that the culture capital industry makes us to believe are real (Marcuse, 1964) did not exist apart from necessary ones such as food and shelter. For almost all of human history people and communities grew, hunted, and traded for what they needed (Agger, 2004). The creation of money changed this, according to Marx (Marx Engels, 1951a), because it could be saved and used for many purposes as it became an intermediary in the trading proces s. Instead of simply being used as a tool of value to acquire necessary needs like basic food and shelter, money began to signify success or social status which gradually distanced individuals from one another (Agger, 2004), hence the term alienation. Another type of labor Marx termed free labor (Marx Engels, 1951b), although the term â€Å"free† is a misnomer. This form of labor was one in which slaves provided labor. They were bought and sold along with their labor power once to a slave owner thereby becoming a commodity such as a dishwasher or a tractor. It is important to note that the slave is the commodity so his labor power is no longer a commodity that belongs to him. Marx’s account of history explains how the bourgeoisie capitalist emerged (Marx Engels, 1951a) but for the purposes of this paper I will fast forward to capitalism in colonial America which includes the most recognized form of labor that still exist today, wage labor. Although wage labor is labor that is at first owned by the worker, it can be sold by the worker thereby making it so that the labor is no longer under the worker’s control. â€Å"The worker receives means of subsistence in exchange for his labor power, but the capitalist receives in exchange for his means of subsistence labour, the productive activity of the worker, the creative power whereby the worker not only replaces what he consumes but gives to the accumulated labour a greater value than it previously possessed.†(Marx Engels, 1951b, pp85) This type of relationship between the worker and the capitalist along with the creation of currency creates what Marx termed as alienation (Giddens Held, 1982). Marx’s theory of alienation Marx attributes four types of alienation to labor under capitalism (Giddens Held, 1982). According to Marx, when the worker gets paid for completing an assigned task, he is actually selling his labor as a commodity. This commodity is a form of capital that Marx terms as having social power because the power is transferred from the proletariat or worker to the capitalist (Marx Engels, 1951b). Once this transfer of labor power occurs, alienation develops for many reasons as outlined by Marx (Giddens Held, 1982). The first includes the alienation of the worker from his or her true self as a human being rather than a machine due to the lack of opportunity for self expression and directly benefitting from the fruits of one’s individual labor. The profit or commodity created as a result of one’s labor is privately owned by someone other than the creator. The second form of alienation, social alienation, occurs between workers since capitalism reduces labor to a commodity to be traded on the market and disrupts the social relationship among workers. Thirdly, since the product is controlled by the capitalist, alienation exists between the worker and the product itself. The worker no longer has control of his own life because he no longer has any control of his own work. Before the emergence of capitalism, labor was a person’s life activity. According to Marx a worker never become autonomous or experience self-realization because their life activity or work becomes controlled by someone else. The manifestation of their life through the fruits of their labor is no longer realized by the worker herself. Now their labor is only significant in the way the bourgeois want it. Lastly, alienation exists from the act of production itself due to high specialization and the division of labor (Smith, 1991) among workers that results in high efficiency for the capitalist but becomes a meaningless activity, offering little intrinsic satisfaction for the worker. Marx also noted that religion strengthens the alienation process by causing individuals to accept their lot in life no matter its condition. Social identity theory Tajfel (1978) defines social identity as â€Å"that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership.†(pp. 63). Tajfel and Turner (1979) further described social categorization as one of three processes that underlie social identity theory (SIT). Social categorization is the process by which individuals categorize others into groups in efforts to organize social information (Ellemers, De Gilder, Haslam, 2004; Tajfel, 1978). According to Tajfel (1978), social categorization is the underlying process of SIT that is sufficient as well as necessary to induce forms of in-group favoritism and out- group discrimination. The second process, social comparison, occurs when people make comparisons between the self–perceived categories of groups in relation to the group’s perceived values and their own individual values ( Tajfel, 1978). Social identification, the final process, allows people define themselves based on their level of affiliation with a group that they believe shares the same values they wish to attain. The choice of group affiliation is also based on the perceived value that the group holds in expectation of receiving personal benefit from such membership (Ashforth Mael, 1989). Ashforth and Mael (1989) also note that this categorization process serves the purposes of (a) helping people make sense of their environment by defining other in relation to their group membership, and (b) enabling individuals to define themselves in comparison to other groups. People are then more likely to identify with a group with whom they share similarities, because their identification is based on how they categorize themselves as similar to those within the group (van Knippenberg van Schie, 2000). Turner (1978) demonstrated in various experiments where groups were created with minimal categorization, when there is no category placed on them, participants artificially created in- groups and out- group dynamics. This showed evidence that individuals in groups will create artificial divisions between themselves and individuals from other groups even when no observable differences are salient. Other experiments demonstrated that since race is a very salient characteristic, its social categorization may induce in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination as well. One such example of how inter-group bias is resolved through an understanding of SIT is taken from what is known as the Robber’s Cave study in which two groups of boys campers were placed on two different sides of the campgrounds unaware one another (Gaertner, Dovidio, Banker, Houlette, Johnson, McGlynn, 2000). Upon each group’s awareness of each other, they immediately began to discriminate against each other for no salient reason other than the fact that they were in different groups. This resulted in each group creating an in-group and out-group condition. However, using decategorization, conflict between the two groups was ameliorated (Gaertner, Dovidio, Banker, Houlette, Johnson, McGlynn, 2000). Decategorization is the process by which individuals in groups are isolated from their group and placed in a situation in which they must interact with a member from another group they deem as the out-group. Over time, surface level differences erode and deep level similarities emerge which helps them to decategorize themselves in relation to their group membership. Isolation from the influence of their group members enables this decategorization to occur, thereby reducing conflict between the members from different groups. The contemporary workplace Managing diversity. Some diversity scholars suggest that a demographically representative workforce results in more innovation and creativity (Jackson, 1991; Cox Blake, 1991). There has been an increased recognition of the need for more diversity as it is not only ethical, but is also good for business. A diverse workforce assists companies in attracting customers by having sales teams that â€Å"speak the language† of the minority consumer. Marketing and promotion becomes more effective because a company with a diverse workforce has a greater understanding of the culture and values of its consumers helping them to connect with them. Overall, this paradigm shift in the hiring practices of current companies occurs as it heavily impacts their bottom line in a profitable manner. This new shift is very evident as the backlash from majority group members such as White males mounts. Protests against affirmative action programs and blaming minorities for economic crises such as job layoffs, falling real incomes, and diminished access to quality education have resulted in racial profiling and hate crimes (Agger, 2002), other ways to alienate minority members. Information communication technology (ICT). Communication via technologies has been shown to change group interaction. It tends to equalize participation, because group members participate more equally, and charismatic or higher status members may have less power (Kiesler, Siegel, McGuire, 1984). Social psychological aspects of computer- mediated communications studies of groups that make decisions via computer interaction have shown they were more uninhibited and there was less influence from any one dominant person. It appears that groups that communicate by computer experience a breakdown of social and organizational barriers. This may occur because we as individuals can recreate ourselves forming a new identity, a cyber self (Agger, 2004). The cyber self is described by Agger as the self-assembled, manipulated persona that â€Å"accesses† the world via online. According to Agger, a capitalist system thrives off consumer self-invention as we create status and false needs for ourselves. In a cyber-capitalism (Agger, 2004) this still occurs but with one’s true identity hidden. This may be beneficial for minorities who still may become socially alienated even after reinventing themselves. THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT Karl Marx said â€Å"the history of all hitherto-existing society is the history of class struggles† (Marx Engels, 1951a). Although many scholars acknowledge overlaps between class and race, I believe the salience of racial color and distinct racial features helps to further explain dynamics regarding the relationship between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie and its effect on promulgating capitalism and alienation. As we have observed, the history of social economic systems depicts changes in how labor was utilized. Consequently, it may also demonstrate the extent of alienation exhibited by workers. The majority of the first settlers and later most immigrants of European ancestry up until present day experienced alienation as theorized by Marx. But unlike the worker who sold his labor as the commodity, the slave laborer was the commodity, providing free labor while the worker or the serf earned a wage. Although Marx does make the distinction between wage labor and slave labor to some degree (Marx Engels, 1951b), he does not delve into the consequences or the degree of the difference between the two regarding the consequences of alienation. According to Marx, the capitalist society leads to the alienation of workers by not allowing them to express themselves through their work. The proletariat is alienated because she is compensated less for her labor versus profiting from her own entrepreneurial efforts. Smith argued that this arrangement is fair because the capitalist assumes the risk (Smith, 1991). This debate may be arguable for the average laborer at that period in history, but can this same argument of fairness hold true for the slave laborer? Although Marx spoke about alienation among working class, he failed to detail the condition of the slaves at the time who one could argue were the most alienated. At best, Marx related that the Negro slave is a commodity only if used as one, such as a sewing machine or any other commodity (Marx Engels, 1951b). In reality SIT demonstrates how the saliency of race attaches a stigma to the slave as being only a slave, with skin color serving as an identifier. The result is that not only was the labor of a slave a commodity, but the slave itself was the commodity who could not profit from his/her own labor. This is the first example of how alienation differs between minorities and other workers. A dialectic exists because although alienation exist for all workers, it is greater for minorities, ergo the slaves, due to social injustice. This oversight in Marxian theory is important to recognize as it may mean that levels of strength of alienation should be identified. Ironically, capitalism, the economic force that initially promulgated slavery, became the economic force that would ameliorate the condition of alienation among minorities in a dialectical sense. According to Marx, the mass of wage labor grows as the capital grows (Marx Engels, 1951b). In his words, â€Å"the number of wage workers grows; the domination of capital extends over a greater number of individuals,† (Marx Engels, 1951b, pp 87). When four million Blacks were released from slavery in 1865 (Bennet, 1984), they were forced to compete with White laborers which created a troubled situation. However, Northerners looked south for cheap labor and imported Blacks to beat down a higher standard living or to break up unions (Meltzer, 1984). It was capitalism at its finest which served to create an opportunity for ex-slaves. Although they experienced more alienation than their White counterparts because they were not allowed to unionize, being in a situation where they could a ctually work for a wage could be considered a step –up from their past condition of slavery and poverty. The industrial revolution of the late 18th and early 19th century provides additional examples of how not only the need for labor increased, but how this need created â€Å"token† labor for minorities who ordinarily would have faced discrimination and not found work. The transcontinental railroad project is considered by some to be one of the most important projects in American history because it enabled Americans to connect across the entire U.S. An enormous undertaking, the Central Pacific Railroad, was so large and dangerous that there was a greater than usual demand for labor that minorities were able to fill (Schama, 2009). This important endeavor would not have been completed had it not been for the Chinese immigrants at that time. They were not wanted by the contractors at first, and were mistakenly considered too frail and effeminate for the job due to their small body frame and minimal facial hair. However, due to the need for more workers, they temporarily overcame p rejudice and eventually comprised a significant amount of its workforce until its completion. Positing from Marx, dimensions of alienation existed due to the level of dangerous working conditions and the mind numbing and repetitive division of labor. At the completion of the project, the Chinese were not even recognized for their outstanding accomplishment. However, I argue that they experienced a decrease in the level of social alienation they would experience by having an opportunity to work alongside other Americans at a time when prejudice against them was volatile. Again, the dialectic occurs whereas Marx’s theory of alienation applies to the work situation, but the fact that a job existed at all for the Chinese in a prejudiced society demonstrated the amelioration of alienation for minorities through capitalism. However, when observed as a comparison between minority and non-minority workers I propose that the level of alienation for minorities is still high as compared to non-minorities. This may demonstrate how alienation could possibly be moderated by the race of a worker. Both examples from history provide evidence for what could be termed as relative alienation. Adam Smith assumed that saving money and having a Protestant work ethic of self denial, working hard and delaying gratification was a driving force behind capitalism (Smith, 1991). He was correct in that it supported and helped to ignite its birth in America, but by the end of World War II people needed to spend money in order for capitalism to thrive (Agger, 2002). As a result people began to spend beyond their means and credit was popularized as a new way of spending. Eventually this new dimension of consumerism led to the Great Depression of 1929. As a result, a host of programs were introduced by President Franklin Roosevelt to salvage the economy and the capitalistic way of life. Many new measures were devised by the Roosevelt administration to combat the Depression. The work week was shortened, young children were forbidden to work, a minimum wage was set, and federal relief programs including social security were implemented. A public works program built new hospitals, schools and community centers, and playgrounds which created millions of jobs (Meltzer, 1984). It was not until these frantic years of the New Deal, as it was called, that Blacks began to move into unions as well as begin to truly benefit greatly from the creation of new jobs. Although discriminated against, minorities again experienced a different level of social alienation in the workplace, as compared to their White counterparts (Meltzer, 1984). Henry Ford is noted for his revolutionary business model using the assembly line as well as for increasing the wages of his workers so that they may purchase his vehicles. The Ford Model T was the first automobile mass produced on assembly lines with completely interchangeable parts, marketed to the middle class. The needed factory worker knowledge and skills were also reduced to one of 84 areas. Although according to Marx this scenario serves as a situation for alienation to exist, for the minority worker it may be considered an elevation in social status in a foreign land in which they experience prejudice. It is noted that approximately 75% of Ford’s workforce were immigrants (Schama, 2009). Unfortunately, this was not due to Ford’s compassion for minorities in need of work, but rather for the need to meet the demands of labor. This demand continued during World War I and through World War II as men serving their country as soldiers were unavailable to meet the labor needs of capitalism. Minorities stepping in, although alienated by the exploitation of their labor, experienced an improvement in social alienation from White co-workers simply by having an opportunity to work with them. The birth of information communication technology has transformed the landscape of business and work group interaction. Its effect of removing barriers and equalizing members within interacting groups helps to ameliorate conditions of alienation of minorities with co-workers. The cyber self can be used to better connect with members from all cultural backgrounds. First, it is a self- assembled invention of the self that allows minorities get a â€Å"foot in the door† thereby enabling them to connect with co-workers in manner that blinds them from bias or prejudice. Secondly, computer-mediated interaction between members equalizes participation by removing the influence from dominant personalities or members. This is akin to a decategorization process by which majority members and minority members may converse via ICT without influence from ethnic, racial, or gender group member affiliation. I propose that this will enable deep-level characteristic to emerge while surface-level difference dissolve, enhancing the interaction between members. As a result, the probability of alienation occurring between co-workers may diminish in the contemporary workplace. CONCLUSION The sonnet inscribed on the Statue of Liberty reads: Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed to me. I lift my lamp beside the golden door. These words convey an offering of liberty and prosperity by capitalism and democracy that can be perceived as sincere. The history of capital demonstrates that the mantra of Lady Liberty may have in reality been a call for cheap labor to perpetuate capital and grow the U.S. economy. In turn, the rise of industry with an influx of immigrants created more than just a melting pot, but also bred a new type of worker different from the proletariat described by Marx. By deconstructing this new proletariat, we find that over time alienation in the workplace has manifested itself in a disguised manner for all Americans, but simultaneously improved co-worker interaction for minorities as a result of contemporary business practices. Recognizing this dialectic, the construct of alienation should be examined further in order to identify its different dimensions relative to the cultural and racial identity of workers. Additionally, managers and leaders should continue to foster business diversity practices that serve to be inclusive of all so as to minimize cultural or social dissonance among co-workers. Although capitalism has been attributed a major cause of alienation, it is ironic that the contemporary ways of doing business spawned from capitalistic expansion may save capitalism from becoming a socially dominant force that transgresses the basic rights of humanity. The new ways that businesses communicate and produce services and products at may seem to only intensify workplace social alienation at first glance. Ideologies created by capitalism such as globalization, just-in-time production, and the culture industry seem to have heightened alienation among workers in our wealth building society. However, so long as other ideologies of capitalism such as managing diversity for profit and ITC also exist, social alienation can be manageable. REFERENCES Agger, Ben. 1989. Fast Capitalism: A Critical Theory of Significance. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Agger, Ben. 2002. Postponing the Postmodern: Sociological Practices, Selves and Theories. Boulder, CO: Rowman and Littlefield. Agger, Ben. 2004. The Virtual Self: A Contemporary Sociology. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. Ashforth, B., Mael, F. 1989. Social identity and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14: 20 – 39. Bennet, Jr., Lerone. 1984. Before the Mayflower. New York: Penguin Books. Cox, T. H. Blake, S. 1991. Managing Cultural Diversity: Implications for Organizational Competitiveness. Academy of Management Executive, 5: 45-56. Gaertner, S.L., Dovidio, J.F., Banker, B.S., Houlette, M., Johnson, K.M., McGlynn, E.A. 2000. Reducing intergroup conflict: From super-ordinate goals to decategorization, recategorization, and mutual differentiation. Group Dynamic: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4: 98-114. Giddens, A. and D. Held. 1982. Classes, Power, and Conflict: Classical and Contemporary Debates. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Jackson, S. E. 1991. Team composition in organizational settings: Issues in managing an increasingly diverse workforce. In S. Worchel W. Wood, and J.Simpson (Eds.). Group Process and Productivity: 138-173. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Kiesler, S., Siegel, J., and McGuire, T.W. 1984. Social psychological aspects of computer- mediated communications. American Psychologist, 39: 1123-1134. Knippenberg, D., Schie, E.C.M. 2000. Foci correlates of OID. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73: 137- 147. Mael, F., Ashforth, B. 2001. Identification in work, sports, and religion: Contrasting the benefits and risks. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 31: 197- 222. Mael, F.A., Tetrick, L.E. 1992. Identifying OID. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52: 813- 824. Marcuse, Herbert. 1964. One-Dimensional Man. Boston: Beacon Press. Marx, Karl. 1939. Capital: Volume 1. New York: International Publishers. Marx, K., and F. Engels. 1951. Selected Works in Two Volumes: Volume 1. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. Meltzer, Milton. 1984. The Black Americans: A History in Their Own Words. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. Schama, S.(Writer). (2009, January 20). What is an American? [Television series episode]. In The American Future: A History. KERA. Smith, Adam. 1991. Wealth of Nations. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C. 1979. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–48). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Tajfel, H. 1978. Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London: Academic Press. Tajfel, H. 1974. Social identity and intergroup behavior. Social Science Information, 15: 1010- 118. Note: Marx and Engels 1951a refers to The Manifesto of the Communist Party by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, and Marx and Engels 1951b refers to Wage Labour and Capital by Karl Marx as reprinted in Marx, K., and F. Engels. 1951. Selected Works in Two Volumes: Volume 1. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, pp. 21-97. Note: Giddens Held 1982 refers the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts reprinted in Giddens, A. and D. Held, Classes, Power, and Conflict: Classical and Contemporary Debates, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1982, pp. 12-19.

Genetic Engineering: The Tremendous Benefits Outweigh the Risks Essay

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wouldn't it be great to improve health care, improve agriculture, and improve our quality of life? Genetic engineering is already accomplishing those things, and has the potential to accomplish much more.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Genetic engineering, also referred to as biotechnology, is a fairly new science where the genes of an organism are modified to change the features of an organism or group of organisms. Genes are found in the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of an organism, and each gene controls a specific trait of an organism. Scientists have discovered what many of these genes control, both in plants and animals. Scientists then can modify these genes to benefit the organism. For example, if a person has a gene that codes for a certain disease, scientists can insert healthy copies of that gene to heal the patient. Genetic engineering is the hottest new field in medical research (Elmer-Dewitt). Although there have been some questions about whether genetic engineering is ethical or safe, there are too many benefits to ignore it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Of the many uses of genetic engineering, agricultural use is one of the most beneficial. Scientists can modify plants to grow in adverse environments, places where there are often droughts and floods. Researchers are working on plants that can survive frost ("Advocates . . ."). Other plants are being genetically altered to fight certain diseases. A good example of this is the tomato. If a tomato is given a fungal-fighting microbe, it can resist the gray mold called botrytis (Dyson).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Biotechnology is also making plants more nutritious by increasing protein and vitamin content. Animals are even genetically engineered to produce meats that contain less fat. Scientists are even working to take t... ... and Leone, Bruno, series editors. San Diego: Greenhaven press, 1996. Elmer-Dewitt, Philip. "The Genetic Revolution" Time. January 17, 1994. pp. 46-53   "Food Biotechnology: Federal Regulations and Labeling." [On-Line]. Available: http://ificinfo.health.org/brochure/bioregs.htm "Genetic Engineering." The 1998 Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Inc. 1997. "Genetic Engineering." The New Illustrated Science and Invention Encyclopedia. Volume 8. Connecticut: H.S. Stuttman, Inc. 1989. p. 1104. Loveard, Keith and Tet Sieu, Choong, "Magic Genes." [On-Line]. Available: http://www.pathfinder.com/asiaweek/97/0905/cs1.html The Economist, from the editors. "Genetic Research Will Improve the Quality of Health Care" in Genetic Engineering: Opposing Viewpoints, Bender, David and Leone, Bruno, series editors. San Diego: Greenhaven press, 1996.

Aims and Objectives of Woburn Safari Park and Thomas Cook Essay

How does Nolan’s the dark night use MELCS to good effect and what does this indicate regarding the films genre? Are there any social criticisms present? In this essay I will be explaining the way that different techniques are used, and what these show about the Dark Knight. I will be looking throughout the film at how Nolan uses various effects such as, colour, editing, lighting, camera, and sound. And how these things aren’t really what you might expect for the typical super hero film, but also how he uses them to subtlety criticize human nature. First of all I will talk about the colour used Nolan uses. Throughout the film the colour scheme always seems to be very dark but as well as this the things that are happening usually contrast this. A good example of this is at one point when the Joker is being questioned, all the lights go out and everything is pitch-black except the jokers white face. This is very effective as it really makes the joker stand out and means you can see every little detail of his face and facial expressions but don’t know what else is happening in the room. It therefore creates a whole lot of suspense about what’s going to happen next and where it’s going to come from whilst at the same time letting you see every detail of the jokers face and almost making you really understand what he’s thinking. Another point in which this contrast is shown is in Bat-mans hide away place. In there the floor is a dark dull grey/black, and the ceiling is all white lights. This is good because it makes the room seem endless and gives anything in it airs of importance and cleanliness like trophy shelves that are lit from above like the room or a dentist. This is good because in the room he keeps all his high-tech gadgets witch seem incredibly expensive and valuable when they are in the room, but then when Bat-man is using them he acts as though they are something that are disposable. Another way Nolan uses colour is in the costumes. The Joker is an especially good example of this as he wears a purple jacket, green hair, Green top, and bright red giant red lips. This shows us a lot about his character for example, purple stands for royalty and the joker becomes almost like a king by making everyone scared of him. Secondly the green stands for jealousy, and the Joker is very good at making people feel jealous and spiteful about other people. As well as maybe feeling slightly jealous at not being normal, and being unhappy himself. Lastly the joker is just completely crazy, and all his colours clashing certainly do emphasize this. Overall it is a brilliant way of showing his character and showing how different he is to everyone. I mean, you’d never miss him would you!? On the other hand the dark knight is completely the opposite of the Joker, and their clothing really shows this. As the knight is completely black it seems to show how he represents reality and order, but the joker stands for everything mad and chaotic as that is what he loves. As for the props Nolan uses, really they are quite simple. Even the high-tech gadgets batman uses all seem possible and there are no out of this world, impossible things. I think this is actually quite a good thing, as it means that it makes the whole play seem more realistic, and like something that could actually happen. Therefore it is all scarier in a slightly surreal way. Next I will look at how Nolan uses editing in the film and what effects this creates. When a lot of action is happening at the same time Nolan uses lots of quick shots of the action quickly cutting from one to the other. This is very clever as you think you’re just about to find out what’s going to happen when it cuts to the next scene which is also really tense and you want to know what’s going to happen there but it goes back to the one before. This creates lots of tension in the film and it is a bit like its flashing from scene to scene like your heart beat getting faster and faster. It also gives the sense of chaos and panic and shows you how every thing is happening at the same time. This is good as it makes you realise how hard it must be for the cops and detectives. Another similar thing he does is when two people and talking to each other about something in which one of them might react in a certain way he will keep cutting from one face to the other as you wait for the reaction to happen. This also creates tension and makes you wonder if they will react the way you think their about or not, then when it does its more of a shock. The lighting in the film is another very important element in the film. I have already explained some of it in the colour part. As with the colour most of the film is set in dark, low key lighting, with lots of shadows creating a spooky kind of atmosphere. Once again though like the colour, often he uses contrast. A place where this is very effective is when some people are looking for Bat-man and it is very dark so they all have very bright torches. All you can see is the torch light getting closer and closer towards you but nothing out of the light. This makes it seem very scary as all you can do is wait until he is in the torch light but by that time you know it will already be too late because they are too close. Another scene in witch the lighting used is very effective is in the bank robbery scene. It is once again very dark in the bank, but because this time it is lighter outside, and the room has very big windows, you get some patches of the bank where it is much lighter. This is really good because he then makes it so that when the action happens, it happens in the lighter places. This means you can clearly see what is happening in the light when something happens out of it your attention is not so focused on it so it is a surprise. Also the dim light coming from just the one side of the building creates big long spooky shadows to, witch adds nicely to the tense atmosphere. Nolan also uses camera techniques in an interesting way to create good effects. For example right at the beginning of the play there is an extreme long shot of a sky scraper. This is then slowly zoomed in; right up to one window and into an extreme close-up, then the glass in the window suddenly shatters. Nolan uses this a lot in the film with other things too, like some one face that once zoomed in you see their shocked facial expression. This creates the element of surprise means you know that something is going to happen to do with what they are zooming in on but not what exactly until your right there. It also creates tension on what that’s going to be. Another camera technique used is when something is happening the camera circles the action. This happens a lot and is good because it means you can see everything that is happening and all the reactions of people around it. In addition to this it can create serious tension and fear. A great example of this is when the Joker is about to slit the black mans mouth. The camera circles his head so that sometimes you can see his face with the knife in and sometimes just the back of his head and the Jokers facial expression. Every time the camera shows his face you wince and think, Oh no, is it going to happen now whilst I can see it. This happens over and over until eventually he slits his mouth when you can only see the Jokers expression but you know it’s been done because his face and its kind of a relief because at least you haven’t have had to watch. Lastly Nolan uses another successful effect by turning the camera around. He does this near the end when the Joker is hanging upside-down off a building. The camera is turned so that you see the Joker as if he was standing upright and it looks very strange as his hair is all over the place and his hand are waving about, but for some reason it kind of fits the Jokers. This is because the Jokers personality is all over and mad and it seems like that is where he belongs, in an upside-down world. It’s slightly ironic really. Moreover, it made it seem like the right place, and way for him to die. Another method Nolan uses to brilliant effect is sound, digetic, and non digetic. For instance throughout the film, when ever tension is building up the same music starts. It sets of quietly and slowly, building up, getting faster and louder until the pinnacle of the excitement then stops. This is very effective as it creates the feeling of panic and makes your heart start to race as you know that something’s about to happen. Sometime when this happens the non digetic sound is on its own building up until its apex when a sudden digetic noise will puncture it. This not only makes tension but also shock and fear. A good example of this is at the beginning when a window breaks. This is a great opening scene as the sound and the camera skill create loads of tension and anticipation. Nolan does another very clever thing with the sound at one point. Just after a massive explosion has happened he cuts the sound altogether, and although you can tell that really there would be loads of noise going on its silent. This is because after an incredibly loud explosion you often become deaf for a while. This is a very clever thing to do, and makes you feel like you really are part of the film. Further more without the sound you concentrate more on what you can see and all the facial expressions and whatever’s going on around. Another interesting point to think about in the dark knight is weather or not it is a normal film in the super hero genre. There are many things for and against this argument and I will look at them in this paragraph. First of all there is of course the super hero, and super villain, in this case, bat-man and the Joker. Both whom have very typical features of the super-hero genre but also some not so typical ones. To start with I will concentrate on Bat-man. Like most super heroes he is; quite wealthy, but has had a hard background and has had to build up that wealth from not very much. Is young and good looking with lots of strength and high tech gadgets. Has a different identity during the daytime, and fights crime at night, wearing a costume so no one knows who he is. Also, like a lot of super hero’s e.g. spider man he is based on some sort of animal. Lastly he has a very strong sense of right and wrong, for example his one rule never to kill anyone witch a lot of super her oes seem to have. On the other hand, although he seems to be a reasonably normal super hero, there are some things witch are slightly different. For example, a lot of the public don’t particularly like him, at one point they even try to send him to jail. Also unlike most super heroes, he doesn’t really have any sub natural powers, he just like a normal human in most ways. Also, a very big twist in the play is when the heroine dies, so like most super heroes bat-man does have heroine who he can’t really have yet. But, whereas usually at the end of the play they would get together, In Bat-man, about half way through she dies. Now as for the joker, is a bit different. Although like most super villains he is bad and has had a hard life. His attitude to life and Bat-man is quite different. Unlike most super villains, he does not really seem to hate Bat-man. Instead he sees him as game, and even when he has the chance to kill him says he is too fun to kill. This is very unusual and very different to how the baddy usually feels towards the hero. Furthermore, the reasons for the Joker to do what he does is rather strange too, because most villains do it for money or wealth or power, but the Joker doesn’t care about any of this, and just does it for fun. Overall I think that although The Dark Knight isn’t exactly what you would expect from a typical super hero movie, all in all its more that than anything else. I think that really Nolan has taken the super hero genre and added aspects from other things like horror to create a very successful, far more adult movie which will appeal to people who love all the super hero kind of movies, but also to those who usually find them a bit too childish and unrealistic.

Where Abortion Goes Wrong Essay - 2546 Words

Where Abortion Goes Wrong Abortion is wrong. This is a bold statement for a twenty-one-year-old, white male raised in a middle class home, and one that I am not at all comfortable making. It is not just that the debate over abortion is so heated, or that I fear being labeled a Bible-beating fanatic. I am uncomfortable because the issue of abortion is mired in uncertainty. We all know that child abuse and rape are wrong. Under no condition can rape be justified. This is simply a fact that we all accept. The problem of abortion, on the other hand, is not nearly as straightforward. As pointed out by Frederick Turner in Abortion Can be a Moral Sacrifice, pro-life people can be sure that late-term abortions are murder. However, the same†¦show more content†¦We would all recognize, whether we are pro-life or pro-choice, that the freedom to have control over our mental and physical well-being is one of our most basic and important rights. If this was the only right to consider, then one could easily justify abortion, as Judith Jarvis Thomson does in A Defense of Abortion (1971). Thomson begins by allowing, for the sake of argument, that the fetus is a person from the moment of conception and so has the same rights as any of us. However, she holds up the right to have control over oneself as the greatest right of all. Thus, even though abortion kills an innocent person, it is not wrong. This reasoning seems flawed from the beginning because Thomson recognizes only the womans right to control over her body, not the fetus. However, even if we assume this to be true, her argument is still flawed. The freedom of control over ones body is important, but it is not the only right that must be weighed. More important is the right to life of the fetus, if it is a person. In denying a person his or her right to life, all other rights are rendered meaningless. For this reason, our society has deemed murder the greatest crime, to be punished with the harshest penalties. Therefore, if one right mus t be violated in order to preserve the other, the right to life must beShow MoreRelated`` A Defense Of Abortion `` By Judith Jarvis Essay1552 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction: Is it immoral to have an abortion? Abortion is the process of stopping a pregnancy through the removal or killing of the fetus. Dan Marquis is adamant that abortion is wrong and that the fetus is a full human being that deserves to live while, Judith Jarvis Thomson would say that should the mother decide to terminate her pregnancy it is her body and her right. However, what if there was a third side to this already complicated issue? I argue that abortion itself is amoral and that circumstancesRead More Abortion is Wrong Essay738 Words   |  3 Pagesconvinced that abortion should be illegal. I have always been taught to consider that when a fetus (a baby developing inside the stomach) is growing it has feelings, emotions, and physical processes that make him or her alive just like people who have been born . To have an abortion is to kill someone; it is murder. Often, the aftermath of abortion is devastating with guilt, shame, and even death. Since every action has a consequence, I think we should act in righteousness. Abortion is wrong because itRead MoreMovie Review : Juno For This Movie866 Words   |  4 Pageseverything up to Juno to decide what to do with what is happening. Her first instincts is to have an abortion. While sitting in the abortion center filling out the paperwork, Juno soon realizes that’s not what she can go through with. Her good friend Leah recommends her to look at ads for adoption. Juno thinks she finds the perfect couple to take care of her unborn child. Before she chooses this family, she goes home to tell her Step-mom, Bren, and her father, Mac, that she got pregnant at a young age. ObviouslyRead MoreAbortion Is A Murder Of Unknowing Helpless Pre Born Children849 Words   |  4 Pagesthen she made a wrong turn in life. She went to a party with her boyfriend, who got her intoxicated and unaware of her surroundings. Weeks passed and something was wrong with her. She went to the doctor and told the doctor, she was having extreme tiredness, headaches, heartburn and needed to urinate more often. The doctor told her to take a pregnancy test and next thing you know, she was pregnant. Following her appointment, she calls me to tell me she is pregnant and wants an abortion. I told her thatRead MoreThe Abortion Debate Over The Rights And Wrongs Of Intentionally Termination A Pregnancy Before Normal Childbirth1458 Words   |  6 PagesThe abortion debate deals with the rights and wrongs of intentionally termination a pregnancy before normal childbirth, killing the fetus in the process. Abortion is a very painful topic for women and men who find themselves facing the moral dilemma of whether or not to terminate a pregnancy. It s one of the most polarizing moral issues - most people are on one side or the other, very few are undecided. Everyone agrees that adult human beings have the right to life. Some people would say that theRead MoreAbortion Is Wrong Or Not? Essay1598 Words   |  7 Pagesthe issue of abortion over many of years. Religion, moral beliefs, choice, pro-life, conception, ect, are major themes introduced during arguments regarding whether abortion is wrong or not. In 1973, in the case of Roe v. Wade abortion was legalized at the federal level, but ultimately it was left up to the states to choose how they wanted to oversee abortion laws. The state of New Jersey has a proposed a new law â€Å"S2026: â€Å"Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act,† which bans abortion 20 weeks or moreRead MoreIs Abortion Good Or Bad?984 Words   |  4 PagesIs it wrong to end the life of an innocent person? Most people would agree that it is. Yet, in the case of abortion many still see it morally justified. Abortion is one of the most debated and difficult to understand moral issues in ethics today. Ethics, is the study of the nature of morality; it is what makes use decide between good and bad (Boss, 2014). Therefore, is abortion good or bad? Unfortunately there are no universal ethics that can lead us to a straightforward answer. As ethical subjectivismRead More The Controversial Issue of Abortion Essay1359 Words   |  6 PagesAbortion is a very controversial topic. This paper will discuss the opposing sides of the issue as well as my own personal opinion. The basic question is when a developing person actually becomes a person or alive. The following articles: A Defense of Abortion, by Judith Jarvis Thomson and Opposition to Abortion: A Human Rights Approach, by Baruch Brody discuss the opposing sides of the abortion issue. I will be using and summarizing those articles in my evaluation of the topic abortion. Read MoreAbortion: Pro Life vs Pro Choice Essay1748 Words   |  7 PagesAbortion: Pro-Life vs. Pro-Choice Abortion: Pro-Life Vs. Pro-Choice â€Å"Abortion is the spontaneous or artificially induced expulsion of an embryo or fetus† (Abortion, 2002). An artificially induced abortion is the type referred to in the legal context. Abortions happen in different situations. The question comes when is it the right or wrong choice. The root question becomes the moment a fetus becomes a person and entitled to rights. The fetus could be a person at conception, duringRead MoreSummary Of The Defense Of Abortion By Judith Jarvis Thomson1175 Words   |  5 Pages In her article, â€Å"The Defense of Abortion†, Judith Jarvis Thomson states an analogy involving a violinist. She first states that you are allowed to unplug yourself in the violinist scenario, second abortion after rape is analogous to the violinist scenario, therefore, you should be allowed to unplug yourself and be allowed to abort after rape (Chwang, Abortion slide 12). In this paper, I will argue that abortion is morally acceptable even if the fetu s is considered a person. This paper will criticize